参考文献

Thiazolidinedione derivatives are antidiabetic agents that increase the insulin sensitivity of target tissues in animal models of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. In vitro,thiazolidinediones promote adipocyte differentiation of preadipocyte and mesenchymal stem cell lines; however,the molecular basis for this adipogenic effect has remained unclear. Here,we report that thiazolidinediones are potent and selective activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma),a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily recently shown to function in adipogenesis. The most potent of these agents,BRL49653,binds to PPAR gamma with a Kd of approximately 40 nM. Treatment of pluripotent C3H10T1/2 stem cells with BRL49653 results in efficient differentiation to adipocytes. These data are the first demonstration of a high affinity PPAR ligand and provide strong evidence that PPAR gamma is a molecular target for the adipogenic effects of thiazolidinediones. Furthermore,these data raise the intriguing possibility that PPAR gamma is a target for the therapeutic actions of this class of compounds. View Publication

A class of pyridinyl imidazoles inhibit the MAP kinase homologue,termed here reactivating kinase (RK) [Lee et al. (1994) Nature 372,739-746]. We now show that one of these compounds (SB 203580) inhibits RK in vitro (IC50 = 0.6 microM),suppresses the activation of MAPKAP kinase-2 and prevents the phosphorylation of heat shock protein (HSP) 27 in response to interleukin-1,cellular stresses and bacterial endotoxin in vivo. These results establish that MAPKAP kinase-2 is a physiological RK substrate,and that HSP27 is phosphorylated by MAPKAP kinase-2 in vivo. The specificity of SB 203580 was indicated by its failure to inhibit 12 other protein kinases in vitro,and by its lack of effect on the activation of RK kinase and other MAP kinase cascades in vivo. We suggest that SB 203580 will be useful for identifying other physiological roles and targets of RK and MAPKAP kinase-2. View Publication

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is believed to protect cells against environmental stress (e.g. heat shock) by switching off biosynthetic pathways,the key signal being elevation of AMP. Identification of novel targets for the kinase cascade would be facilitated by development of a specific agent for activating the kinase in intact cells. Incubation of rat hepatocytes with 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside (AICAR) results in accumulation of the monophosphorylated derivative (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside; ZMP) within the cell. ZMP mimics both activating effects of AMP on AMPK,i.e. direct allosteric activation and promotion of phosphorylation by AMPK kinase. Unlike existing methods for activating AMPK in intact cells (e.g. fructose,heat shock),AICAR does not perturb the cellular contents of ATP,ADP or AMP. Incubation of hepatocytes with AICAR activates AMPK due to increased phosphorylation,causes phosphorylation and inactivation of a known target for AMPK (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase),and almost total cessation of two of the known target pathways,i.e. fatty acid and sterol synthesis. Incubation of isolated adipocytes with AICAR antagonizes isoprenaline-induced lipolysis. This provides direct evidence that the inhibition by AMPK of activation of hormone-sensitive lipase by cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase,previously demonstrated in cell-free assays,also operates in intact cells. AICAR should be a useful tool for identifying new target pathways and processes regulated by the protein kinase cascade. View Publication

Cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH),an enzyme responsible for oxidizing intracellular aldehydes,has an important role in ethanol,vitamin A,and cyclophosphamide metabolism. High expression of this enzyme in primitive stem cells from multiple tissues,including bone marrow and intestine,appears to be an important mechanism by which these cells are resistant to cyclophosphamide. However,although hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) express high levels of cytosolic ALDH,isolating viable HSC by their ALDH expression has not been possible because ALDH is an intracellular protein. We found that a fluorescent aldehyde,dansyl aminoacetaldehyde (DAAA),could be used in flow cytometry experiments to isolate viable mouse and human cells based on their ALDH content. The level of dansyl fluorescence exhibited by cells after incubation with DAAA paralleled cytosolic ALDH levels determined by Western blotting and the sensitivity of the cells to cyclophosphamide. Moreover,DAAA appeared to be a more sensitive means of assessing cytosolic ALDH levels than Western blotting. Bone marrow progenitors treated with DAAA proliferated normally. Furthermore,marrow cells expressing high levels of dansyl fluorescence after incubation with DAAA were enriched for hematopoietic progenitors. The ability to isolate viable cells that express high levels of cytosolic ALDH could be an important component of methodology for identifying and purifying HSC and for studying cyclophosphamide-resistant tumor cell populations. View Publication

Sphingolipids,particularly gangliosides,are enriched in neuronal membranes where they have been implicated as mediators of various regulatory events. We recently provided evidence that sphingolipid synthesis is necessary to maintain neuronal growth by demonstrating that in hippocampal neurons,inhibition of ceramide synthesis by Fumonisin B1 (FB1) disrupted axonal outgrowth (Harel,R. and Futerman,A. H. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268,14476-14481). We now analyze further the relationship between neuronal growth and sphingolipid metabolism by examining the effect of an inhibitor of glucosylceramide synthesis,D-threo-1-phenyl-2-decanoylamino-3-morpholino-1- propanol (PDMP) and by examining the effects of both FB1 and PDMP at various stages of neuronal development. No effects of FB1 or PDMP were observed during the first 2 days in culture,but by day 3 axonal morphology was significantly altered,irrespective of the time of addition of the inhibitors to the cultures. Cells incubated with FB1 or PDMP had a shorter axon plexus and less axonal branches. FB1 appeared to cause a retraction of axonal branches between days 2 and 3,although long term incubation had no apparent effect on neuronal morphology or on the segregation of axonal or dendritic proteins. In contrast,incubation of neurons with conduritol B-epoxide,an inhibitor of glucosylceramide degradation,caused an increase in the number of axonal branches and a corresponding increase in the length of the axon plexus. A direct correlation was observed between the number of axonal branch points per cell and the extent of inhibition of either sphingolipid synthesis or degradation. These results suggest that sphingolipids play an important role in the formation or stabilization of axonal branches. View Publication

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA; 1-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate) is a platelet-derived lipid mediator that activates its own G-protein-coupled receptor to trigger phospholipase C-mediated Ca2+ mobilization and other effector pathways in numerous cell types. In this study we have examined the structural features of LPA that are important for activation of the Ca(2+)-mobilizing receptor in human A431 carcinoma cells,which show an EC50 for oleoyl-LPA as low as 0.2 nM. When the acyl chain at the sn-1 position is altered,the rank order of potency is oleoyl-LPA textgreater arachidonoyl-LPA textgreater linolenoyl-LPA textgreater linoleoyl-LPA textgreater stearoyl-LPA = palmitoyl-LPA textgreater myristoyl-LPA. The shorter-chain species,lauroyl- and decanoyl-LPA,show little or no activity. Ether-linked LPA (1-O-hexadecyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate) is somewhat less potent than the corresponding ester-linked LPA; its stereoisomer is about equally active. Deletion of the glycerol backbone causes a 1000-fold decrease in potency. Replacement of the phosphate group in palmitoyl-LPA by a hydrogen- or methyl-phosphonate moiety results in complete loss of activity. A phosphonate analogue with a methylene group replacing the oxygen at sn-3 has strongly decreased activity. All three phosphonate analogues induce cell lysis at doses textgreater 15 microM. Similarly,the methyl and ethyl esters of palmitoyl-LPA are virtually inactive and become cytotoxic at micromolar doses. None of the LPA analogues tested has antagonist activity. Sphingosine 1-phosphate,a putative messenger with some structural similarities to LPA,elicits a transient rise in intracellular [Ca2+] only at micromolar doses; however,cross-desensitization experiments indicate that sphingosine 1-phosphate does not act through the LPA receptor. The results indicate that,although many features of the LPA structure are important for optimal activity,the phosphate group is most critical,suggesting that this moiety is directly involved in receptor activation. View Publication

We have recently shown that conservation and differentiation of primitive human hematopoietic progenitors in in vitro long-term bone marrow cultures (LTBMC) occurs to a greater extent when hematopoietic cells are grown separated from the stromal layer than when grown in direct contact with the stroma. This finding suggests that hematopoiesis may depend mainly on soluble factors produced by the stroma. To define these soluble factors,we examine here whether a combination of defined early-acting cytokines can replace soluble stroma-derived biologic activities that induce conservation and differentiation of primitive progenitors. Normal human Lineage-/CD34+/HLA-DR- cells (DR-) were cultured either in the absence of a stromal layer (stroma-free") or in a culture system in which DR- cells were separated from the stromal layer by a microporous membrane ("stroma-noncontact"). Both culture systems were supplemented three times per week with or without cytokines. These studies show that culture of DR- cells for 5 weeks in a "stroma-free" culture supplemented with a combination of four early acting cytokines (Interleukin-3 [IL-3] View Publication

To study the role of different cytokine combinations on the proliferation and differentiation of highly purified primitive progenitor cells,a serum-free liquid culture system was used in combination with phenotypic and functional analysis of the cells produced in culture. CD34+ CD45RAlo CD71lo cells,purified from umbilical cord blood by flow cytometry and cell sorting,were selected for this study because of their high content of clonogenic cells (34%),particularly multipotent progenitors (CFU-MIX,12% of all cells). Four cytokine combinations were tested: (1) mast cell growth factor (MGF; a c-kit ligand) and interleukin-6 (IL-6); (2) MGF,IL-6,IL-3,and erythropoietin (Epo); (3) MGF,IL-6,granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)/IL-3 fusion protein (FP),macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF),and granulocyte-CSF (G-CSF); and (4) MGF,IL-6,FP,M-CSF,G-CSF,and Epo. Maximum numbers of erythroid progenitors (BFU-E,up to 55-fold increase) and mature erythroid cells were observed in the presence of MGF,IL-6,IL-3,and Epo,whereas maximum levels of myeloid progenitors (CFU-C,up to 70-fold increase) and mature myeloid cells were found in cultures supplemented with MGF,IL-6,FP,M-CSF,and G-CSF. When MGF,IL-6,FP,M-CSF,G-CSF,and Epo were present,maximum levels of both erythroid and myeloid progenitors and their progeny were observed. These results indicate that specific cytokine combinations can act directly on primitive hematopoietic cells resulting in significant expansion of progenitor cell numbers and influencing their overall patterns of proliferation and differentiation. Furthermore,the observations presented in this study suggest that the cytokine combinations used were unable to bias lineage commitment of multipotent progenitors,but rather had a permissive effect on the development of lineage-restricted clonogenic cells. View Publication

The growth of human megakaryocyte progenitors from human bone marrow (BM) cells was compared using a methylcellulose semisolid assay supplemented either by normal human plasma or by a serum-free medium. Far better growth of megakaryocyte colonies from CD34+ BM cells stimulated by interleukin 3 (IL-3) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) was observed in serum-free medium compared with human plasma supplemented cultures. These results were confirmed in liquid cultures using the same serum-free medium composition. The megakaryocytes were identified by using an immunocytochemical procedure after labeling with an anti-GPIIb-IIIa monoclonal antibody. High percentages (15 to 20%) of megakaryocytes were present in serum-free cultures stimulated by IL-3 alone or combined with IL-6. The absolute number of megakaryocytes in serum-free medium exceeds by 3.3 (IL-3 plus IL-6) to 4.4 (IL-3 alone) times the corresponding number of megakaryocytes observed in human plasma supplemented cultures. The optimal concentration of IL-3 alone was 5 ng/ml,and an optimal synergistic effect of IL-6 (5 ng/ml) was obtained when combined with a suboptimal dose of IL-3 (1 ng/ml). The poor growth of megakaryocyte colonies from CD34+ BM cells in human plasma suggested the presence of an inhibitory factor. When a neutralizing monoclonal antibody against transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta) is present in human plasma supplemented cultures of CD34+ BM cells,the number of megakaryocyte colonies is increased to the level observed in corresponding serum-free cultures. The high efficiency of this serum-free medium to promote the growth of human megakaryocytes will be useful to study the effects of regulators and platelet agonists acting on human megakaryocytes,without interference from factors in the serum. View Publication

DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK),which is involved in DNA double-stranded break repair and V(D)J recombination,comprises a DNA-targeting component called Ku and an approximately 460 kDa catalytic subunit,DNA-PKcs. Here,we describe the cloning of the DNA-PKcs cDNA and show that DNA-PKcs falls into the phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase family. Biochemical assays,however,indicate that DNA-PK phosphorylates proteins but has no detectable activity toward lipids. Strikingly,DNA-PKcs is most similar to PI kinase family members involved in cell cycle control,DNA repair,and DNA damage responses. These include the FKBP12-rapamycin-binding proteins Tor1p,Tor2p,and FRAP,S. pombe rad3,and the product of the ataxia telangiectasia gene,mutations in which lead to genomic instability and predisposition to cancer. The relationship of these proteins to DNA-PKcs provides important clues to their mechanisms of action. View Publication