参考文献

The identification of neural stem cells (NSCs) in situ has been prevented by the inability to identify a marker consistently expressed in all adult NSCs and is thus generally accomplished using the in vitro neurosphere-forming assay. The high-mobility group transcription factor Sox2 is expressed in embryonic neural epithelial stem cells; because these cells are thought to give rise to the adult NSC population,we hypothesized that Sox2 may continue to be expressed in adult NSCs. Using Sox2:EGFP transgenic mice,we show that Sox2 is expressed in neurogenic regions along the rostral-caudal axis of the central nervous system throughout life. Furthermore,all neurospheres derived from these neurogenic regions express Sox2,suggesting that Sox2 is indeed expressed in adult NSCs. We demonstrate that NSCs are heterogeneous within the adult brain,with differing capacities for cell production. In vitro,all neurospheres express Sox2,but the expression of markers common to early progenitor cells within individual neurospheres varies; this heterogeneity of NSCs is mirrored in vivo. For example,both glial fibrillary acidic protein and NG2 are expressed within individual neurospheres,but their expression is mutually exclusive; likewise,these two markers show distinct staining patterns within the Sox2+ regions of the brain's neurogenic regions. Thus,we propose that the expression of Sox2 is a unifying characteristic of NSCs in the adult brain,but that not all NSCs maintain the ability to form all neural cell types in vivo. View Publication

Evidence is presented that bone marrow (BM) in addition to CD45(positive) hematopoietic stem cells contains a rare population of heterogenous CD45(negative) nonhematopoietic tissue committed stem cells (TCSC). These nonhematopoietic TCSC (i) are enriched in population of CXCR4(+) CD34(+) AC133(+) lin(-) CD45(-) and CXCR4(+) Sca-1(+) lin(-) CD45(-) in humans and mice,respectively,(ii) display several markers of pluripotent stem cells (PSC) and (iii) as we envision are deposited in BM early in development. Thus,since BM contains versatile nonhematopoietic stem cells,previous studies on plasticity trans-dedifferentiation of BM-derived hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) that did not include proper controls to exclude this possibility could lead to wrong interpretations. Therefore,in this spotlight review we present this alternative explanation of 'plasticity' of BM-derived stem cells based on the assumption that BM stem cells are heterogenous. We also discuss a potential relationship of TCSC/PSC identified by us with other BM-derived CD45(negative) nonhematopoietic stem cells that were recently identified by other investigators (eg MSC,MAPC,USSC and MIAMI cells). Finally,we discuss perspectives and pitfalls in potential application of these cells in regenerative medicine. View Publication

Molecular mimicry between microbial and self-components is postulated as the mechanism that accounts for the antigen and tissue specificity of immune responses in postinfectious autoimmune diseases. Little direct evidence exists,and research in this area has focused principally on T cell-mediated,antipeptide responses,rather than on humoral responses to carbohydrate structures. Guillain-Barré syndrome,the most frequent cause of acute neuromuscular paralysis,occurs 1-2 wk after various infections,in particular,Campylobacter jejuni enteritis. Carbohydrate mimicry [Galbeta1-3GalNAcbeta1-4(NeuAcalpha2-3)Galbeta1-] between the bacterial lipooligosaccharide and human GM1 ganglioside is seen as having relevance to the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barré syndrome,and conclusive evidence is reported here. On sensitization with C. jejuni lipooligosaccharide,rabbits developed anti-GM1 IgG antibody and flaccid limb weakness. Paralyzed rabbits had pathological changes in their peripheral nerves identical with those present in Guillain-Barré syndrome. Immunization of mice with the lipooligosaccharide generated a mAb that reacted with GM1 and bound to human peripheral nerves. The mAb and anti-GM1 IgG from patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome did not induce paralysis but blocked muscle action potentials in a muscle-spinal cord coculture,indicating that anti-GM1 antibody can cause muscle weakness. These findings show that carbohydrate mimicry is an important cause of autoimmune neuropathy. View Publication

Types A and B Niemann-Pick disease (NPD) are lysosomal storage disorders resulting from loss of acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) activity. We have used a knockout mouse model of NPD (ASMKO mice) to evaluate the effects of direct intracerebral transplantation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on the progression of neurological disease in this disorder. MSCs were transduced with a retroviral vector to overexpress ASM and were injected into the hippocampus and cerebellum of 3-week-old ASMKO pups. Transplanted cells migrated away from the injection sites and survived at least 6 months after transplantation. Seven of 8 treated mice,but none of the untreated controls,survived for textgreater or = 7 months after transplant. Survival times were greater in sex-matched than in sex-mismatched transplants. Transplantation significantly delayed the Purkinje cell loss that is characteristic of NPD,although the protective effect declined with distance from the injection site. Overall ASM activity in brain homogenates was low,but surviving Purkinje cells contained the retrovirally expressed human enzyme,and transplanted animals showed a reduction in cerebral sphingomyelin. These results reveal the potential of treating neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disorders by intracerebral transplantation of bone marrow-derived MSCs. View Publication

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are clonal cell lines derived from the inner cell mass of the developing blastocyst that can proliferate extensively in vitro and are capable of adopting all the cell fates in a developing embryo. Clinical interest in the use of ES cells has been stimulated by studies showing that isolated human cells with ES properties from the inner cell mass or developing germ cells can provide a source of somatic precursors. Previous studies have defined in vitro conditions for promoting the development of specific somatic fates,specifically,hematopoietic,mesodermal,and neurectodermal. In this study,we present a method for obtaining dopaminergic (DA) and serotonergic neurons in high yield from mouse ES cells in vitro. Furthermore,we demonstrate that the ES cells can be obtained in unlimited numbers and that these neuron types are generated efficiently. We generated CNS progenitor populations from ES cells,expanded these cells and promoted their differentiation into dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the presence of mitogen and specific signaling molecules. The differentiation and maturation of neuronal cells was completed after mitogen withdrawal from the growth medium. This experimental system provides a powerful tool for analyzing the molecular mechanisms controlling the functions of these neurons in vitro and in vivo,and potentially for understanding and treating neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. View Publication

We have previously identified multipotent neuroepithelial (NEP) stem cells and lineage-restricted,self-renewing precursor cells termed NRPs (neuron-restricted precursors) and GRPs (glial-restricted precursors) present in the developing rat spinal cord (A. Kalyani,K. Hobson,and M. S. Rao,1997,Dev. Biol. 186,202-223; M. S. Rao and M. Mayer-Proschel,1997,Dev. Biol. 188,48-63; M. Mayer-Proschel,A. J. Kalyani,T. Mujtaba,and M. S. Rao,1997,Neuron 19,773-785). We now show that cells identical to rat NEPs,NRPs,and GRPs are present in mouse neural tubes and that immunoselection against cell surface markers E-NCAM and A2B5 can be used to isolate NRPs and GRPs,respectively. Restricted precursors similar to NRPs and GRPs can also be isolated from mouse embryonic stem cells (ES cells). ES cell-derived NRPs are E-NCAM immunoreactive,undergo self-renewal in defined medium,and differentiate into multiple neuronal phenotypes in mass culture. ES cells also generate A2B5-immunoreactive cells that are similar to E9 NEP-cell-derived GRPs and can differentiate into oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Thus,lineage restricted precursors can be generated in vitro from cultured ES cells and these restricted precursors resemble those derived from mouse neural tubes. These results demonstrate the utility of using ES cells as a source of late embryonic precursor cells. View Publication