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The lack of in vitro prostate cancer models that recapitulate the diversity of human prostate cancer has hampered progress in understanding disease pathogenesis and therapy response. Using a 3D organoid system,we report success in long-term culture of prostate cancer from biopsy specimens and circulating tumor cells. The first seven fully characterized organoid lines recapitulate the molecular diversity of prostate cancer subtypes,including TMPRSS2-ERG fusion,SPOP mutation,SPINK1 overexpression,and CHD1 loss. Whole-exome sequencing shows a low mutational burden,consistent with genomics studies,but with mutations in FOXA1 and PIK3R1,as well as in DNA repair and chromatin modifier pathways that have been reported in advanced disease. Loss of p53 and RB tumor suppressor pathway function are the most common feature shared across the organoid lines. The methodology described here should enable the generation of a large repertoire of patient-derived prostate cancer lines amenable to genetic and pharmacologic studies. View Publication

Although the majority of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) initially respond to chemotherapy,many of them subsequently relapse,and the mechanistic basis for AML persistence following chemotherapy has not been determined. Recurrent somatic mutations in DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A),most frequently at arginine 882 (DNMT3A(R882)),have been observed in AML and in individuals with clonal hematopoiesis in the absence of leukemic transformation. Patients with DNMT3A(R882) AML have an inferior outcome when treated with standard-dose daunorubicin-based induction chemotherapy,suggesting that DNMT3A(R882) cells persist and drive relapse. We found that Dnmt3a mutations induced hematopoietic stem cell expansion,cooperated with mutations in the FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 gene (Flt3(ITD)) and the nucleophosmin gene (Npm1(c)) to induce AML in vivo,and promoted resistance to anthracycline chemotherapy. In patients with AML,the presence of DNMT3A(R882) mutations predicts minimal residual disease,underscoring their role in AML chemoresistance. DNMT3A(R882) cells showed impaired nucleosome eviction and chromatin remodeling in response to anthracycline treatment,which resulted from attenuated recruitment of histone chaperone SPT-16 following anthracycline exposure. This defect led to an inability to sense and repair DNA torsional stress,which resulted in increased mutagenesis. Our findings identify a crucial role for DNMT3A(R882) mutations in driving AML chemoresistance and highlight the importance of chromatin remodeling in response to cytotoxic chemotherapy. View Publication

Multiple myeloma (MM) has proven clinically susceptible to modulation of pathways of protein homeostasis. Blockade of proteasomal degradation of polyubiquitinated misfolded proteins by the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (BTZ) achieves responses and prolongs survival in MM,but long-term treatment with BTZ leads to drug-resistant relapse in most patients. In a proof-of-concept study,we previously demonstrated that blocking aggresomal breakdown of polyubiquitinated misfolded proteins with the histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) inhibitor tubacin enhances BTZ-induced cytotoxicity in MM cells in vitro. However,these foundational studies were limited by the pharmacologic liabilities of tubacin as a chemical probe with only in vitro utility. Emerging from a focused library synthesis,a potent,selective,and bioavailable HDAC6 inhibitor,WT161,was created to study the mechanism of action of HDAC6 inhibition in MM alone and in combination with BTZ. WT161 in combination with BTZ triggers significant accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins and cell stress,followed by caspase activation and apoptosis. More importantly,this combination treatment was effective in BTZ-resistant cells and in the presence of bone marrow stromal cells,which have been shown to mediate MM cell drug resistance. The activity of WT161 was confirmed in our human MM cell xenograft mouse model and established the framework for clinical trials of the combination treatment to improve patient outcomes in MM. View Publication

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Glioma tumour-initiating cells (GTICs) can originate upon the transformation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs). Studies on GTICs have focused on primary tumours from which GTICs could be isolated and the use of human embryonic material. Recently,the somatic genomic landscape of human gliomas has been reported. RTK (receptor tyrosine kinase) and p53 signalling were found dysregulated in ∼90% and 86% of all primary tumours analysed,respectively. Here we report on the use of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) for modelling gliomagenesis. Dysregulation of RTK and p53 signalling in hiPSC-derived NPCs (iNPCs) recapitulates GTIC properties in vitro. In vivo transplantation of transformed iNPCs leads to highly aggressive tumours containing undifferentiated stem cells and their differentiated derivatives. Metabolic modulation compromises GTIC viability. Last,screening of 101 anti-cancer compounds identifies three molecules specifically targeting transformed iNPCs and primary GTICs. Together,our results highlight the potential of hiPSCs for studying human tumourigenesis. View Publication

Although embryonal proteins have been used as tumor marker,most are not useful for detection of early malignancy. In the present study,we developed mouse monoclonal antibodies against fetal lung of miniature swine,and screened them to find an embryonal protein that is produced at the early stage of malignancy,focusing on lung adenocarcinoma. We found an antibody clone that specifically stained stroma of lung adenocarcinoma. LC-MS/MS identified the protein recognized by this clone as dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 2 (DDAH2),an enzyme known for antiatherosclerotic activity. DDAH2 was found to be expressed in fibroblasts of stroma of malignancies,with higher expression in minimally invasive adenocarcinoma (MIA) and invasive adenocarcinoma than in adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS). Moreover,tumors with high stromal expression of DDAH2 had a poorer prognosis than those without. In vitro analysis showed that DDAH2 increases expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS),inducing proliferation and capillary-like tube formation of vascular endothelial cells. In resected human tissues,eNOS also showed higher expression in invasive adenocarcinoma than in AIS and normal lung,similarly to DDAH2. Our data indicate that expression of DDAH2 is associated with invasiveness of lung adenocarcinoma via tumor angiogenesis. DDAH2 expression might be a prognostic factor in lung adenocarcinoma. View Publication

Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant primary pediatric brain tumor and is currently divided into four subtypes based on different genomic alterations,gene expression profiles and response to treatment: WNT,Sonic Hedgehog (SHH),Group 3 and Group 4. This extensive heterogeneity has made it difficult to assess the functional relevance of genes to malignant progression. For example,expression of the transcription factor Orthodenticle homeobox2 (OTX2) is frequently dysregulated in multiple MB variants; however,its role may be subtype specific. We recently demonstrated that neural precursors derived from transformed human embryonic stem cells (trans-hENs),but not their normal counterparts (hENs),resemble Groups 3 and 4 MB in vitro and in vivo. Here,we tested the utility of this model system as a means of dissecting the role of OTX2 in MB using gain- and loss-of-function studies in hENs and trans-hENs,respectively. Parallel experiments with MB cells revealed that OTX2 exerts inhibitory effects on hEN and SHH MB cells by regulating growth,self-renewal and migration in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. This was accompanied by decreased expression of pluripotent genes,such as SOX2,and was supported by overexpression of SOX2 in OTX2+ SHH MB and hENs that resulted in significant rescue of self-renewal and cell migration. By contrast,OTX2 is oncogenic and promotes self-renewal of trans-hENs and Groups 3 and 4 MB independent of pluripotent gene expression. Our results demonstrate a novel role for OTX2 in self-renewal and migration of hENs and MB cells and reveal a cell-context-dependent link between OTX2 and pluripotent genes. Our study underscores the value of human embryonic stem cell derivatives as alternatives to cell lines and heterogeneous patient samples for investigating the contribution of key developmental regulators to MB progression. View Publication

Summary The cytokine TWEAK and its cognate receptor Fn14 are members of the TNF/TNFR superfamily and are upregulated in tumors. We found that Fn14,when expressed in tumors,causes cachexia and that antibodies against Fn14 dramatically extended lifespan by inhibiting tumor-induced weight loss although having only moderate inhibitory effects on tumor growth. Anti-Fn14 antibodies prevented tumor-induced inflammation and loss of fat and muscle mass. Fn14 signaling in the tumor,rather than host,is responsible for inducing this cachexia because tumors in Fn14- and TWEAK-deficient hosts developed cachexia that was comparable to that of wild-type mice. These results extend the role of Fn14 in wound repair and muscle development to involvement in the etiology of cachexia and indicate that Fn14 antibodies may be a promising approach to treat cachexia,thereby extending lifespan and improving quality of life for cancer patients. View Publication

Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures produce more in vivo-like multicellular structures such as spheroids that cannot be obtained in two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. Thus,they are increasingly employed as models for cancer and drug research,as well as tissue engineering. It has proven challenging to stabilize spheroid architectures for detailed morphological examination. Here we overcome this issue using a silica bioreplication (SBR) process employed on spheroids formed from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) and hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells cultured in the nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) hydrogel. The cells in the spheroids are more round and tightly interacting with each other than those in 2D cultures,and they develop microvilli-like structures on the cell membranes as seen in 2D cultures. Furthermore,SBR preserves extracellular matrix-like materials and cellular proteins. These findings provide the first evidence of intact hPSC spheroid architectures and similar fine structures to 2D-cultured cells,providing a pathway to enable our understanding of morphogenesis in 3D cultures. View Publication

BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence suggests that some long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in certain diseases,such as cancer. The lncRNA,CCDC26,is related to childhood acute myeloid leukemia (AML) because its copy number is altered in AML patients. RESULTS We found that CCDC26 transcripts were abundant in the nuclear fraction of K562 human myeloid leukemia cells. To examine the function of CCDC26,gene knockdown (KD) was performed using short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs),and four KD clones,in which CCDC26 expression was suppressed to 1% of its normal level,were isolated. This down-regulation included suppression of CCDC26 intron-containing transcripts (the CCDC26 precursor mRNA),indicating that transcriptional gene suppression (TGS),not post-transcriptional suppression,was occurring. The shRNA targeting one of the two CCDC26 splice variants also suppressed the other splice variant,which is further evidence for TGS. Growth rates of KD clones were reduced compared with non-KD control cells in media containing normal or high serum concentrations. In contrast,enhanced growth rates in media containing much lower serum concentrations and increased survival periods after serum withdrawal were observed for KD clones. DNA microarray and quantitative polymerase chain reaction screening for differentially expressed genes between KD clones and non-KD control cells revealed significant up-regulation of the tyrosine kinase receptor,KIT,hyperactive mutations of which are often found in AML. Treatment of KD clones with ISCK03,a KIT-specific inhibitor,eliminated the increased survival of KD clones in the absence of serum. CONCLUSIONS We suggest that CCDC26 controls growth of myeloid leukemia cells through regulation of KIT expression. A KIT inhibitor might be an effective treatment against the forms of AML in which CCDC26 is altered. View Publication

BACKGROUND In colorectal carcinoma (CRC),activation of the Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathway is commonly observed. In addition,the commonly used 5FU-based chemotherapy in patients with metastatic CRC was found to enrich a subpopulation of CD26(+) cancer stem cells (CSCs). As activation of the Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathway was also found in the CD26(+) CSCs and therefore,we hypothesized that an ATP-competitive pan-Raf inhibitor,Raf265,is effective in eliminating the cancer cells and the CD26(+) CSCs in CRC patients. METHODS HT29 and HCT116 cells were treated with various concentrations of Raf265 to study the anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects of Raf265. Anti-tumor effect was also demonstrated using a xenograft model. Cells were also treated with Raf265 in combination with 5FU to demonstrate the anti-migratory and invasive effects by targeting on the CD26(+) CSCs and the anti-metastatic effect of the combined treatment was shown in an orthotopic CRC model. RESULTS Raf265 was found to be highly effective in inhibiting cell proliferation and tumor growth through the inhibition of the RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway. In addition,anti-migratory and invasive effect was found with Raf265 treatment in combination with 5FU by targeting on the CD26(+) cells. Finally,the anti-tumor and anti-metastatic effect of Raf265 in combination with 5FU was also demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS This preclinical study demonstrates the anti-tumor and anti-metastatic activity of Raf265 in CRC,providing the basis for exploiting its potential use and combination therapy with 5FU in the clinical treatment of CRC. View Publication