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Microsporidia are single-celled intracellular parasites that cause opportunistic diseases in humans. Encephalitozoon intestinalis is a prevalent human-infecting species that invades the small intestine. Macrophages are potential reservoirs of infection,and dissemination to other organ systems is also observed. The macrophage response to infection and the developmental trajectory of the parasite are not well studied. Here we use single cell RNA sequencing to investigate transcriptional changes in both the parasite and the host during E. intestinalis infection of human macrophages in vitro. The parasite undergoes large transcriptional changes throughout the life cycle,providing a blueprint for parasite development. While a small population of infected macrophages mount a response,most remain transcriptionally unchanged,suggesting that the majority of parasites may avoid host detection. The stealthy microsporidian lifestyle likely allows these parasites to harness macrophages for replication. Together,our data provide insights into the host response in primary human macrophages and the E. intestinalis developmental program. Microsporidia such as Encephalitozoon intestinalis are single-celled intracellular parasites that cause opportunistic infections and disease in humans involving infection of macrophages. Here the authors infect human macrophages with E. intestinalis,in vitro and use single cell transcriptomics to assess the consequences of cellular infection compared to bystander effects on macrophages and provide insights into the E. intestinalis developmental program. View Publication

ABSTRACTBackgroundIdiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a lethal disease with an unknown etiology and complex pathophysiology that are not fully understood. The disease involves intricate cellular interplay,particularly among various immune cells. Currently,there is no treatment capable of reversing the fibrotic process or aiding lung regeneration. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) has demonstrated antifibrotic properties,whereas the adoptive transfer of modified T cells is a well‐established treatment for various malignancies. We aimed to understand the dynamics of T cells in the progression of lung fibrosis and to study the therapeutic benefit of adoptive T cell transfer in a bleomycin‐injured mouse lung (BLM) model.MethodsT cells were isolated from the spleen of naïve mice and transfected in vitro with mouse HGF plasmid and were administered intratracheally to the mice lungs 7 days post‐bleomycin injury to the lung. Lung tissue and bronchoalveolar lavage were collected and analyzed using flow cytometry,histology,qRT‐PCR,ELISA,and hydroxyproline assay.ResultsOur findings demonstrate the successful T cell therapy of bleomycin‐induced lung injury through the adoptive transfer of HGF‐transfected T cells in mice. This treatment resulted in decreased collagen deposition and a balancing of immune cell exhaustion and cytokine homeostasis compared with untreated controls. In vitro testing showed enhanced apoptosis in myofibroblasts induced by HGF‐overexpressing T cells.ConclusionsTaken together,our data highlight the great potential of adoptive T cell transfer as an emerging therapy to counteract lung fibrosis. This study explores the potential of T cells as a therapeutic strategy against idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF),a progressive lung disease for which there is currently no treatment to reverse fibrosis or restore normal lung function. To investigate an innovative approach using adoptive T cell transfer,T cells isolated from healthy mice were genetically modified to carry a plasmid containing hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). The modified cells were delivered directly into the airways of mice with bleomycin‐induced lung fibrosis. The results showed a significant reduction in fibrotic scarring,improved immune regulation,and increased apoptosis of pathogenic myofibroblasts. These results highlight the potential of HGF‐engineered T cells as a promising therapeutic approach to combat IPF. View Publication

ABSTRACTImmune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have provided new hope for melanoma patients,however,not all patients benefit. Furthermore,ICI‐related therapies cause significant immune‐related adverse events that adversely affect patient outcomes. Therefore,there is a pressing need for reliable biomarkers to identify patients most likely to benefit from these treatments. In this study,we employed an extracellular vesicles (EVs) protein expression array to explore the longitudinal membrane protein profiles of plasma‐derived EVs from 32 melanoma patients receiving anti‐PD‐1 and anti‐angiogenesis therapy at baseline and early treatment. We found that the dynamic changes in PD‐L2 on the EV membrane were associated with treatment response and patient survival. The dynamic change of EV PD‐L2 as an indication of treatment efficacy was validated in an independent cohort of melanoma patients treated with anti‐PD‐1 monotherapy. Plasma‐derived PD‐L2+ EVs from patients with mucosal melanoma significantly reduced the frequency of granzyme B+ CD8 T cells within the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of healthy individuals. The inhibitory effect of PD‐L2+ EVs on CD8 T cells was further validated using human melanoma cell lines and the B16‐F10 mouse model. Although intratumoural injection of PD‐L2+ EVs could promote melanoma growth in vivo,tumours with PD‐L2+ EVs showed a higher response to anti‐PD‐1 than those without PD‐L2+ EVs. Collectively,our study demonstrates that PD‐L2+ EVs inhibit CD8 T cell activation and promote melanoma growth,and changes in PD‐L2 on circulating EVs during early treatment could serve as a biomarker for ICI‐based therapy. View Publication

This protocol offers an ex vivo method for screening host-targeting antivirals (HTAs) using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Unlike virus-targeting antivirals (VTAs),HTAs provide advantages in overcoming drug resistance and offering broad-spectrum protection,especially against rapidly mutating or newly emerging viruses. By focusing on PBMCs or pDCs,known for their high production of humoral factors such as Type I interferons (IFNs),the protocol enables the screening of antivirals that modulate immune responses against viruses. Targeting host pathways,especially innate immunity,allows for species-independent antiviral activity,reducing the likelihood of viral escape mutations. Additionally,the protocol's versatility makes it a powerful tool for testing potential antivirals against various viral pathogens,including emerging viruses,positioning it as an essential resource in both pandemic preparedness and broad-spectrum antiviral research. This approach differentiates itself from existing protocols by focusing on host immune modulation through pDCs,offering a novel avenue for HTA discovery. Key features • Optimized protocol for screening HTAs against dengue virus (DENV),chikungunya virus (CHIKV),and Zika virus (ZIKV). • This protocol is ideal for screening soluble or intravenous-formulated compounds for evaluating their efficacy in experimental settings. • This protocol builds upon the method developed by Tsuji et al. [1] and extends its application to PBMCs and testing against DENV,CHIKV,and ZIKV. View Publication

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells that are crucial for anticancer activity and have been developed as an immune cell therapy for leukemia. However,their limited effectiveness against solid tumors has prompted research into methods to enhance NK cell activity through combination therapies. Health supplements capable of boosting immune surveillance against tumor cells are gaining attention owing to their potential benefits. Resveratrol,a stilbenoid produced by several plants including peanuts and grapes,reportedly exerts anticancer effects and can activate immune cells. The peanut sprout extract cultivated with fermented sawdust medium (PSEFS) is rich in resveratrol,leveraging its health benefits in terms of the dry weight of herbal products,thus maximizing the utilization of resveratrol’s beneficial properties. Our study compared the efficacy of resveratrol and PSEFS and revealed that PSEFS significantly enhanced NK cell activation compared with an equivalent dose of resveratrol. We investigated the ability of PSEFS to potentiate NK cell anticancer activity,focusing on NK cell survival,tumor cell lysis,and NK cell activation in PSEFS-administered mice. Our findings suggest that PSEFS could be a potential NK cell booster for cancer immunotherapy. View Publication

BACKGROUNDSepsis is a severe illness characterized by systemic and multiorgan reactive responses and damage. However,the impact of sepsis on the bone marrow,particularly on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs),is less reported. BMSCs are critical stromal cells in the bone marrow microenvironment that maintain bone stability and hematopoietic homeostasis; however,the impairment caused by sepsis remains unknown.AIMTo investigate the effects of sepsis on BMSCs and the underlying mechanisms.METHODSBMSCs were obtained from healthy donors and patients with sepsis. We compared the self-renewal capacity,differentiation potential,and hematopoietic supportive ability in vitro. Senescence of septic BMSCs was assessed using β-galactosidase staining,senescence-associated secretory phenotype,intracellular reactive oxygen species levels,and the expression of P16 and P21. Finally,the changes in septic BMSCs after nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) treatment were evaluated.RESULTSSeptic BMSCs showed decreased proliferation and self-renewal,bias towards adipogenic differentiation,and weakened osteogenic differentiation. Additionally,hematopoietic supportive capacity declines in sepsis. The levels of aging markers were significantly higher in the septic BMSCs. After NAD treatment,the proliferation capacity of septic BMSCs showed a recovery trend,with increased osteogenic and hematopoietic supportive capacities. Sepsis resulted in decreased expression of sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) in BMSCs,whereas NAD treatment restored SIRT3 expression,enhanced superoxide dismutase enzyme activity,reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species levels,maintained mitochondrial stability and function,and ultimately rejuvenated septic BMSCs.CONCLUSIONSepsis accelerates the aging of BMSCs,as evidenced by a decline in self-renewal and osteogenic capabilities,as well as weakened hematopoietic support functions. These deficiencies can be effectively reversed via the NAD/SIRT3/superoxide dismutase pathway. View Publication

Immune dysregulation-induced inflammation serves as a driving force in the progression of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH),while the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain largely uncharted. A Western diet (WD) is employed to construct mouse models of metabolic dysfunction associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) or MASH. Mass cytometry identifies a c-kit+ cDC1 subset whose frequency is reduced in the livers of mice and patients with MASH compared with healthy controls. Adoptive cell transfer of c-kit+ cDC1 protects the progression of MASH. Moreover,analysis of gut microbe sequence shows that WD-fed mice and MASLD/MASH patients exhibit gut microbiota dysbiosis,with an elevated abundance of H2S-producing Desulfovibrio_sp. Transplanting of MASH-derived fecal flora,Desulfovibrio_sp.,or injecting H2S intraperitoneally into MASLD mice decreases the c-kit+cDC1 population and exacerbates liver inflammation. Mechanistically,H2S induces autophagic cell death of cDC1 in a c-kit-dependent manner in cDC-specific c-kit-/- and Atg5-/- mice. We thus uncover that microbiota-derived H2S triggers the autophagic cell death of c-kit+ cDC1 and ignites the liver inflammatory cascade in MASH. The immune regulatory mechanism for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) remains elusive. Here,the authors identify a c-kit+ cDC1 subset,which can be depleted by Desulfovibrio_sp.-induced H2S via autophagic cell death and contributing to uncontrolled inflammation for MASH progression. View Publication

Characterizing the HIV-1 reservoir in blood and tissues is crucial for the development of curative strategies. Using an HIV Tat mRNA-containing lipid nanoparticle (Tat-LNP) in combination with panobinostat,we show that p24+ cells from blood and lymph nodes exhibit distinct phenotypes. Blood p24+ cells are found in both central/transitional (TCM/TTM) and effector memory subsets,mostly lack CXCR5 expression and are enriched in GZMA+ cells. In contrast,most lymph node p24+ cells display a TCM/TTM phenotype,with approximately 50% expressing CXCR5 and nearly all lacking GZMA expression. Furthermore,germinal center T follicular helper cells do not appear to harbor the translation-competent reservoir in long-term suppressed individuals. Near full-length HIV-1 sequencing in longitudinal samples from matched blood,lymph nodes,and gut indicates that clones of infected cells,including those carrying an inducible provirus,persist and spread across various anatomical compartments. Finally,uniform genetic diversity across sites suggests the absence of ongoing replication in tissues under treatment. Here,Pardons and Lambrechts et al show that HIV-1 reservoirs in blood and lymph nodes differ phenotypically. Furthermore, germinal center T follicular helper cells do not harbor the inducible reservoir in long-term suppressed individuals. Infected clones can spread across tissues and persist without active replication. View Publication

Liver metastasis (LM) poses a significant challenge in cancer treatment,with limited available therapeutic options and poor prognosis. Understanding the dynamics of tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune interactions is crucial for developing effective treatments. We find that WNT11 promoted CD8+ T-cell exclusion and suppression,which was correlated with poor prognosis in LM. Mechanistically,WNT11-overexpressing tumor cells directly reduce CD8+ T-cell recruitment and activity by decreasing CXCL10 and CCL4 expression through CAMKII-mediated β-catenin/AFF3 downregulation. WNT11-overexpressing tumor cells promote immunosuppressive macrophage polarization by inducing IL17D expression via the CAMKII/NF-κB pathway,which result in CD8+ T-cell suppression. Moreover,CAMKII inhibition increases the efficacy of anti-PD-1 therapy in mouse model of LM. Serum expression of WNT11 is identified as a potential minimally invasive biomarker in the management of colorectal cancer-LM with immunotherapy. Our findings highlight WNT11/CAMKII axis as a critical regulator of the TME and a promising target for immunotherapy in patients with LM. Activation of the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway has been associated with immune evasion in several cancer types. Here the authors show that expression of WNT11,a member of the non-canonical WNT signaling pathway,is associated with CD8 + T cell exclusion and resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors in liver metastasis. View Publication

Type I Interferons (IFN-I) are central to host protection against viral infections,with plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) being the most significant source,yet pDCs lose their IFN-I production capacity following an initial burst of IFN-I,resulting in susceptibility to secondary infections. The underlying mechanisms of these dynamics are not well understood. Here we find that viral infection reduces the capacity of pDCs to engage both oxidative and glycolytic metabolism. Mechanistically,we identify lactate dehydrogenase B (LDHB) as a positive regulator of pDC IFN-I production in mice and humans; meanwhile,LDHB deficiency is associated with suppressed IFN-I production,pDC metabolic capacity,and viral control following infection. In addition,preservation of LDHB expression is sufficient to partially retain the function of otherwise exhausted pDCs,both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore,restoring LDHB in vivo in pDCs from infected mice increases IFNAR-dependent,infection-associated pathology. Our work thus identifies a mechanism for balancing immunity and pathology during viral infections,while also providing insight into the highly preserved infection-driven pDC inhibition. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are the major IFN-I-producing cells,but this production returns to baseline soon after viral infection. Here the authors show that this decrease in IFN-I production and related pDC functions may be attributed to suppressed oxidative and glycolytic metabolism of pDCs,with lactate dehydrogenase B identified as a regulator. View Publication

Regulatory T cells (Treg) play an important role in regulating immune homeostasis in health and disease. Traditionally their suppressive function has been assayed by mixing purified cell populations,which does not provide an accurate picture of a physiologically relevant response. To overcome this limitation,we here develop ‘single cell suppression profiling of human Tregs’ (scSPOT). scSPOT uses a 52-marker CyTOF panel,a cell division detection algorithm,and a whole PBMC system to assess the effect of Tregs on all other cell types simultaneously. In this head-to-head comparison,we find Tregs having the clearest suppressive effects on effector memory CD8 T cells through partial division arrest,cell cycle inhibition,and effector molecule downregulation. Additionally,scSPOT identifies a Treg phenotypic split previously observed in viral infection and propose modes of action by the FDA-approved drugs Ipilimumab and Tazemetostat. scSPOT is thus scalable,robust,widely applicable,and may be used to better understand Treg immunobiology and screen for therapeutic compounds. Traditional regulatory T cell (Tregs) assays utilize mixture of purified cell population. Here the authors develop a ‘single cell suppression profiling of human Tregs’ (scSPOT) with 52-marker CyTOF panel,a cell division detection algorithm,and a whole PBMC system to assess Treg suppressive function on all cell types simultaneously. View Publication

The fallopian tube undergoes extensive molecular changes during the menstrual cycle and menopause. We use single-cell RNA and ATAC sequencing to construct a comprehensive cell atlas of healthy human fallopian tubes during the menstrual cycle and menopause. Our scRNA-seq comparison of 85,107 pre- and 46,111 post-menopausal fallopian tube cells reveals substantial shifts in cell type frequencies,gene expression,transcription factor activity,and cell-to-cell communications during menopause and menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycle dependent hormonal changes regulate distinct molecular states in fallopian tube secretory epithelial cells. Postmenopausal fallopian tubes show high chromatin accessibility in transcription factors associated with aging such as Jun,Fos,and BACH1/2,while hormone receptors were generally downregulated,a small proportion of secretory epithelial cells had high expression of ESR2,IGF1R,and LEPR. While a pre-menopausal secretory epithelial gene cluster is enriched in the immunoreactive molecular subtype,a subset of genes expressed in post-menopausal secretory epithelial cells show enrichment in the mesenchymal molecular type of high-grade serous ovarian cancer. The fallopian tube undergoes extensive cellular and molecular changes during the menstrual cycle and aging. Here,Weigert et al. present a single-cell atlas of the normal human fallopian tube revealing the transition of secretory epithelial cells throughout the menstrual cycle and menopause. View Publication