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Exercise has been shown to positively augment adult hippocampal neurogenesis; however,the cellular and molecular pathways mediating this effect remain largely unknown. Previous studies have suggested that microglia may have the ability to differentially instruct neurogenesis in the adult brain. Here,we used transgenic Csf1r-GFP mice to investigate whether hippocampal microglia directly influence the activation of neural precursor cells. Our results revealed that an exercise-induced increase in neural precursor cell activity was mediated via endogenous microglia and abolished when these cells were selectively removed from hippocampal cultures. Conversely,microglia from the hippocampi of animals that had exercised were able to activate latent neural precursor cells when added to neurosphere preparations from sedentary mice. We also investigated the role of CX(3)CL1,a chemokine that is known to provide a more neuroprotective microglial phenotype. Intraparenchymal infusion of a blocking antibody against the CX(3)CL1 receptor,CX(3)CR1,but not control IgG,dramatically reduced the neurosphere formation frequency in mice that had exercised. While an increase in soluble CX(3)CL1 was observed following running,reduced levels of this chemokine were found in the aged brain. Lower levels of CX(3)CL1 with advancing age correlated with the natural decline in neural precursor cell activity,a state that could be partially alleviated through removal of microglia. These findings provide the first direct evidence that endogenous microglia can exert a dual and opposing influence on neural precursor cell activity within the hippocampus,and that signaling through the CX(3)CL1-CX(3)CR1 axis critically contributes toward this process. View Publication

The aggressiveness of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is defined by local invasion and resistance to therapy. Within established GBM,a subpopulation of tumor-initiating cells with stem-like properties (GBM stem cells,GSCs) is believed to underlie resistance to therapy. The metabolic pathway autophagy has been implicated in the regulation of survival in GBM. However,the status of autophagy in GBM and its role in the cancer stem cell fraction is currently unclear. We found that a number of autophagy regulators are highly expressed in GBM tumors carrying a mesenchymal signature,which defines aggressiveness and invasion,and are associated with components of the MAPK pathway. This autophagy signature included the autophagy-associated genes DRAM1 and SQSTM1,which encode a key regulator of selective autophagy,p62. High levels of DRAM1 were associated with shorter overall survival in GBM patients. In GSCs,DRAM1 and SQSTM1 expression correlated with activation of MAPK and expression of the mesenchymal marker c-MET. DRAM1 knockdown decreased p62 localization to autophagosomes and its autophagy-mediated degradation,thus suggesting a role for DRAM1 in p62-mediated autophagy. In contrast,autophagy induced by starvation or inhibition of mTOR/PI-3K was not affected by either DRAM1 or p62 downregulation. Functionally,DRAM1 and p62 regulate cell motility and invasion in GSCs. This was associated with alterations of energy metabolism,in particular reduced ATP and lactate levels. Taken together,these findings shed new light on the role of autophagy in GBM and reveal a novel function of the autophagy regulators DRAM1 and p62 in control of migration/invasion in cancer stem cells. View Publication

Ampakines are chemical compounds known to modulate the properties of ionotropic α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA)-subtype glutamate receptors. The functional effects attributed to ampakines involve plasticity and the increase in synaptic efficiency of neuronal circuits,a process that may be intimately associated with differentiation of newborn neurons. The subventricular zone (SVZ) is the main neurogenic niche of the brain,containing neural stem cells with brain repair potential. Accordingly,the identification of new pharmaceutical compounds with neurogenesis-enhancing properties is important as a tool to promote neuronal replacement based on the use of SVZ cells. The purpose of the present paper is to examine the possible proneurogenic effects of ampakine CX546 in cell cultures derived from the SVZ of early postnatal mice. We observed that CX546 (50 μm) treatment triggered an increase in proliferation,evaluated by BrdU incorporation assay,in the neuroblast lineage. Moreover,by using a cell viability assay (TUNEL) we found that,in contrast to AMPA,CX546 did not cause cell death. Also,both AMPA and CX546 stimulated neuronal differentiation as evaluated morphologically through neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN) immunocytochemistry and functionally by single-cell calcium imaging. Accordingly,short exposure to CX546 increased axonogenesis,as determined by the number and length of tau-positive axons co-labelled for the phosphorylated form of SAPK/JNK (P-JNK),and dendritogenesis (MAP2-positive neurites). Altogether,this study shows that ampakine CX546 promotes neurogenesis in SVZ cell cultures and thereby may have potential for future stem cell-based therapies. View Publication

Glioblastoma (GBM) and other malignant gliomas are aggressive primary neoplasms of the brain that exhibit notable refractivity to standard treatment regimens. Recent large-scale molecular profiling has revealed distinct disease subclasses within malignant gliomas whose defining genomic features highlight dysregulated molecular networks as potential targets for therapeutic development. The proneural" designation represents the largest and most heterogeneous of these subclasses� View Publication

The WNT pathway plays multiple roles in neural development and is crucial for establishment of the embryonic cerebellum. In addition,WNT pathway mutations are associated with medulloblastoma,the most common malignant brain tumor in children. However,the cell types within the cerebellum that are responsive to WNT signaling remain unknown. Here we investigate the effects of canonical WNT signaling on two important classes of progenitors in the developing cerebellum: multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs) and granule neuron precursors (GNPs). We show that WNT pathway activation in vitro promotes proliferation of NSCs but not GNPs. Moreover,mice that express activated β-catenin in the cerebellar ventricular zone exhibit increased proliferation of NSCs in that region,whereas expression of the same protein in GNPs impairs proliferation. Although β-catenin-expressing NSCs proliferate they do not undergo prolonged expansion or neoplastic growth; rather,WNT signaling markedly interferes with their capacity for self-renewal and differentiation. At a molecular level,mutant NSCs exhibit increased expression of c-Myc,which might account for their transient proliferation,but also express high levels of bone morphogenetic proteins and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21,which might contribute to their altered self-renewal and differentiation. These studies suggest that the WNT pathway is a potent regulator of cerebellar stem cell growth and differentiation. View Publication

Transactive response DNA-binding (TDP-43) protein is the dominant disease protein in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and a subgroup of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD-TDP). Identification of mutations in the gene encoding TDP-43 (TARDBP) in familial ALS confirms a mechanistic link between misaccumulation of TDP-43 and neurodegeneration and provides an opportunity to study TDP-43 proteinopathies in human neurons generated from patient fibroblasts by using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Here,we report the generation of iPSCs that carry the TDP-43 M337V mutation and their differentiation into neurons and functional motor neurons. Mutant neurons had elevated levels of soluble and detergent-resistant TDP-43 protein,decreased survival in longitudinal studies,and increased vulnerability to antagonism of the PI3K pathway. We conclude that expression of physiological levels of TDP-43 in human neurons is sufficient to reveal a mutation-specific cell-autonomous phenotype and strongly supports this approach for the study of disease mechanisms and for drug screening. View Publication

Insight into the normal function of PrP(C),and how it can be subverted to produce neurotoxic effects,is provided by PrP molecules carrying deletions encompassing the conserved central region. The most neurotoxic of these mutants,Δ105-125 (called ΔCR),produces a spontaneous neurodegenerative illness when expressed in transgenic mice,and this phenotype can be dose-dependently suppressed by co-expression of wild-type PrP. Whether the toxic activity of ΔCR PrP and the protective activity or wild-type PrP are cell-autonomous,or can be exerted on neighboring cells,is unknown. To investigate this question,we have utilized co-cultures of differentiated neural stem cells derived from mice expressing ΔCR or wild-type PrP. Cells from the two kinds of mice,which are marked by the presence or absence of GFP,are differentiated together to yield neurons,astrocytes,and oligodendrocytes. As a surrogate read-out of ΔCR PrP toxicity,we assayed sensitivity of the cells to the cationic antibiotic,Zeocin. In a previous study,we reported that cells expressing ΔCR PrP are hypersensitive to the toxic effects of several cationic antibiotics,an effect that is suppressed by co-expression of wild type PrP,similar to the rescue of the neurodegenerative phenotype observed in transgenic mice. Using this system,we find that while ΔCR-dependent toxicity is cell-autonomous,the rescuing activity of wild-type PrP can be exerted in trans from nearby cells. These results provide important insights into how ΔCR PrP subverts a normal physiological function of PrP(C),and the cellular mechanisms underlying the rescuing process. View Publication

Neurogenesis persists in the rodent dentate gyrus (DG) throughout adulthood but declines with age and stress. Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) residing in the subgranular zone of the DG are regulated by an array of growth factors and respond to the microenvironment,adjusting their proliferation level to determine the rate of neurogenesis. Here we report that genetic deletion of neurofibromin (Nf1),a tumor suppressor with RAS-GAP activity,in adult NPCs enhanced DG proliferation and increased generation of new neurons in mice. Nf1 loss-associated neurogenesis had the functional effect of enhancing behavioral responses to subchronic antidepressants and,over time,led to spontaneous antidepressive-like behaviors. Thus,our findings establish an important role for the Nf1-Ras pathway in regulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis,and demonstrate that activation of adult NPCs is sufficient to modulate depression- and anxiety-like behaviors. View Publication

In vitro exposure of neural progenitor cell (NPC) populations to reduced O(2) (e.g. 3% versus 20%) can increase their proliferation,survival and neuronal differentiation. Our objective was to determine if an acute (textless1hr),in vivo exposure to intermittent hypoxia (AIH) alters expansion and/or differentiation of subsequent in vitro cultures of NPC from the subventricular zone (SVZ). Neonatal C57BL/6 mice (postnatal day 4) were exposed to an AIH paradigm (20×1 minute; alternating 21% and 10% O(2)). Immediately after AIH,SVZ tissue was isolated and NPC populations were cultured and assayed either as neurospheres (NS) or as adherent monolayer cells (MASC). AIH markedly increased the capacity for expansion of cultured NS and MASC,and this was accompanied by increases in a proliferation maker (Ki67),MTT activity and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) signaling in NS cultures. Peptide blockade experiments confirmed that proteins downstream of HIF-1α are important for both proliferation and morphological changes associated with terminal differentiation in NS cultures. Finally,immunocytochemistry and Western blotting experiments demonstrated that AIH increased expression of the neuronal fate determination transcription factor Pax6 in SVZ tissue,and this was associated with increased neuronal differentiation in cultured NS and MASC. We conclude that in vivo AIH exposure can enhance the viability of subsequent in vitro SVZ-derived NPC cultures. AIH protocols may therefore provide a means to prime" NPC prior to transplantation into the injured central nervous system." View Publication

The detection of growth hormone (GH) and its receptor in germinal regions of the mammalian brain prompted our investigation of GH and its role in the regulation of endogenous neural precursor cell activity. Here we report that the addition of exogenous GH significantly increased the expansion rate in long-term neurosphere cultures derived from wild-type mice,while neurospheres derived from GH null mice exhibited a reduced expansion rate. We also detected a doubling in the frequency of large (i.e. stem cell-derived) colonies for up to 120 days following a 7-day intracerebroventricular infusion of GH suggesting the activation of endogenous stem cells. Moreover,gamma irradiation induced the ablation of normally quiescent stem cells in GH-infused mice,resulting in a decline in olfactory bulb neurogenesis. These results suggest that GH activates populations of resident stem and progenitor cells,and therefore may represent a novel therapeutic target for age-related neurodegeneration and associated cognitive decline. View Publication

The identification of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH),fumarate hydratase (FH) and isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations in human cancers has rekindled the idea that altered cellular metabolism can transform cells. Inactivating SDH and FH mutations cause the accumulation of succinate and fumarate,respectively,which can inhibit 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG)-dependent enzymes,including the EGLN prolyl 4-hydroxylases that mark the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) transcription factor for polyubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation. Inappropriate HIF activation is suspected of contributing to the pathogenesis of SDH-defective and FH-defective tumours but can suppress tumour growth in some other contexts. IDH1 and IDH2,which catalyse the interconversion of isocitrate and 2-OG,are frequently mutated in human brain tumours and leukaemias. The resulting mutants have the neomorphic ability to convert 2-OG to the (R)-enantiomer of 2-hydroxyglutarate ((R)-2HG). Here we show that (R)-2HG,but not (S)-2HG,stimulates EGLN activity,leading to diminished HIF levels,which enhances the proliferation and soft agar growth of human astrocytes. These findings define an enantiomer-specific mechanism by which the (R)-2HG that accumulates in IDH mutant brain tumours promotes transformation and provide a justification for exploring EGLN inhibition as a potential treatment strategy. View Publication

Glioblastoma (GBM) is distinguished by a high degree of intratumoral heterogeneity,which extends to the pattern of expression and amplification of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Although most GBMs harbor RTK amplifications,clinical trials of small-molecule inhibitors targeting individual RTKs have been disappointing to date. Activation of multiple RTKs within individual GBMs provides a theoretical mechanism of resistance; however,the spectrum of functional RTK dependence among tumor cell subpopulations in actual tumors is unknown. We investigated the pattern of heterogeneity of RTK amplification and functional RTK dependence in GBM tumor cell subpopulations. Analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas GBM dataset identified 34 of 463 cases showing independent focal amplification of two or more RTKs,most commonly platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRA) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Dual-color fluorescence in situ hybridization was performed on eight samples with EGFR and PDGFRA amplification,revealing distinct tumor cell subpopulations amplified for only one RTK; in all cases these predominated over cells amplified for both. Cell lines derived from coamplified tumors exhibited genotype selection under RTK-targeted ligand stimulation or pharmacologic inhibition in vitro. Simultaneous inhibition of both EGFR and PDGFR was necessary for abrogation of PI3 kinase pathway activity in the mixed population. DNA sequencing of isolated subpopulations establishes a common clonal origin consistent with late or ongoing divergence of RTK genotype. This phenomenon is especially common among tumors with PDGFRA amplification: overall,43% of PDGFRA-amplified GBM were found to have amplification of EGFR or the hepatocyte growth factor receptor gene (MET) as well. View Publication