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Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory disease in young children. Antibodies specific for the RSV prefusion F protein have guided RSV vaccine research,and in human serum,these antibodies contribute to<90% of the neutralization response; however,detailed insight into the composition of the human B cell repertoire against RSV is still largely unknown. In order to study the B cell repertoire of three healthy donors for specificity against RSV,CD27+memory B cells were isolated and immortalized using BCL6 and Bcl-xL. Of the circulating memory B cells,0.35% recognized RSV-A2-infected cells,of which 59% were IgA-expressing cells and 41% were IgG-expressing cells. When we generated monoclonal B cells selected for high binding to RSV-infected cells,44.5% of IgG-expressing B cells and 56% of IgA-expressing B cells reacted to the F protein,while,unexpectedly,41.5% of IgG-expressing B cells and 44% of IgA expressing B cells reacted to the G protein. Analysis of the G-specific antibodies revealed that 4 different domains on the G protein were recognized. These epitopes predicted cross-reactivity between RSV strain A (RSV-A) and RSV-B and matched the potency of antibodies to neutralize RSV in HEp-2 cells and in primary epithelial cell cultures. G-specific antibodies were also able to induce antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis of RSV-A2-infected cells. However,these processes did not seem to depend on a specific epitope. In conclusion,healthy adults harbor a diverse repertoire of RSV glycoprotein-specific antibodies with a broad range of effector functions that likely play an important role in antiviral immunity.IMPORTANCEHuman RSV remains the most common cause of severe lower respiratory tract disease in premature babies,young infants,the elderly,and immunocompromised patients and plays an important role in asthma exacerbations. In developing countries,RSV lower respiratory tract disease has a high mortality. Without an effective vaccine,only passive immunization with palivizumab is approved for prophylactic treatment. However,highly potent RSV-specific monoclonal antibodies could potentially serve as a therapeutic treatment and contribute to disease control and mortality reduction. In addition,these antibodies could guide further vaccine development. In this study,we isolated and characterized several novel antibodies directed at the RSV G protein. This information can add to our understanding and treatment of RSV disease. View Publication

Exposure to cigarette smoke causes a multitude of pathological changes leading to tissue damage and disease. Quantifying such changes in highly differentiated in vitro human tissue models may assist in evaluating the toxicity of tobacco products. In this methods development study,well-differentiated human air-liquid-interface (ALI) in vitro airway tissue models were used to assess toxicological endpoints relevant to tobacco smoke exposure. Whole mainstream smoke solutions (WSSs) were prepared from 2 commercial cigarettes (R60 and S60) that differ in smoke constituents when machine-smoked under International Organization for Standardization conditions. The airway tissue models were exposed apically to WSSs 4-h per day for 1-5 days. Cytotoxicity,tissue barrier integrity,oxidative stress,mucin secretion,and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) excretion were measured. The treatments were not cytotoxic and had marginal effects on tissue barrier properties; however,other endpoints responded in time- and dose-dependent manners,with the R60 resulting in higher levels of response than the S60 for many endpoints. Based on the lowest effect dose,differences in response to the WSSs were observed for mucin induction and MMP secretion. Mitigation of mucin induction by cotreatment of cultures with N-acetylcysteine suggests that oxidative stress contributes to mucus hypersecretion. Overall,these preliminary results suggest that quantifying disease-relevant endpoints using ALI airway models is a potential tool for tobacco product toxicity evaluation. Additional research using tobacco samples generated under smoking machine conditions that more closely approximate human smoking patterns will inform further methods development. View Publication

A major challenge in developing gene-based therapies for airway diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF) is sustaining therapeutic levels of transgene expression over time. This is largely due to airway epithelial cell turnover and the host immunogenicity to gene delivery vectors. Modern gene editing tools and delivery vehicles hold great potential for overcoming this challenge. There is currently not much known about how to deliver genes into airway stem cells,of which basal cells are the major type in human airways. In this study,helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors were delivered to mouse and pig airways via intranasal delivery,and direct bronchoscopic instillation,respectively. Vector transduction was assessed by immunostaining of lung tissue sections,which revealed that airway basal cells of mice and pigs can be targeted in vivo. In addition,efficient transduction of primary human airway basal cells was verified with an HD-Ad vector expressing green fluorescent protein. Furthermore,we successfully delivered the human CFTR gene to airway basal cells from CF patients,and demonstrated restoration of CFTR channel activity following cell differentiation in air-liquid interface culture. Our results provide a strong rationale for utilizing HD-Ad vectors to target airway basal cells for permanent gene correction of genetic airway diseases. View Publication

Smoking is an important risk factor for the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and viral infections are believed to be major triggers of exacerbations,which periodically lead to a worsening of symptoms. The pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members IL-1α and IL-1β are increased in COPD patients and might contribute to disease pathology. We investigated whether individual or combined inhibition of these cytokines reduced lung inflammation in cigarette smoke (CS)-exposed and H1N1-infected BALB/c mice. Animals were treated with individual or combined antibodies (Abs) directed against IL-1α,IL-1β or IL-1R1. Cells in BAL fluid and cytokines/chemokines in lung homogenate were determined. The viral load was investigated. Blocking IL-1α had significant suppressive effects on total cells,neutrophils,and macrophages. Furthermore,it reduced KC levels significantly. Blocking of IL-1β did not provide significant activity. In primary human bronchial epithelial air-liquid-interface cell cultures infected with H1N1,IL-1α Abs but not IL-1β Abs reduced levels of TNF-α and IL-6. Concomitant usage of Abs against IL-1α/IL-1β revealed strong effects in vivo and reduced total cells,neutrophils and macrophages. Additionally,levels of KC,IL-6,TNF-α,MCP-1,MIP-1α and MIP-1β were significantly reduced and ICAM-1 and MUC5 A/C mRNA expression was attenuated. The viral load decreased significantly upon combined IL-1α/IL-1β Ab treatment. Blocking the IL-1R1 provided significant effects on total cells,neutrophils and macrophages but was inferior compared to inhibiting both its soluble ligands IL-1α/IL-1β. Our results suggest that combined inhibition of IL-1α/IL-1β might be beneficial to reduce CS/H1N1-induced airway inflammation. Moreover,combined targeting of both IL-1α/IL-1β might be more efficient compared to individual neutralization IL-1α or IL-1β or inhibition of the IL-1R1. View Publication

The respiratory tract with its ease of access,vast surface area and dense network of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) represents an ideal target for immune-modulation. Bio-mimetic nanocarriers such as virosomes may provide immunomodulatory properties to treat diseases such as allergic asthma. In our study we employed a triple co-culture model of epithelial cells,macrophages and dendritic cells to simulate the human airway barrier. The epithelial cell line 16HBE was grown on inserts and supplemented with human blood monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) and dendritic cells (MDDCs) for exposure to influenza virosomes and liposomes. Additionally,primary human nasal epithelial cells (PHNEC) and EpCAM+ epithelial progenitor cell mono-cultures were utilized to simulate epithelium from large and smaller airways,respectively. To assess particle uptake and phenotype change,cell cultures were analyzed by flow cytometry and pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations were measured by ELISA. All cell types internalized virosomes more efficiently than liposomes in both mono- and co-cultures. APCs like MDMs and MDDCs showed the highest uptake capacity. Virosome and liposome treatment caused a moderate degree of activation in MDDCs from mono-cultures and induced an increased cytokine production in co-cultures. In epithelial cells,virosome uptake was increased compared to liposomes in both mono- and co-cultures with EpCAM+ epithelial progenitor cells showing highest uptake capacity. In conclusion,all cell types successfully internalized both nanocarriers with virosomes being taken up by a higher proportion of cells and at a higher rate inducing limited activation of MDDCs. Thus virosomes may represent ideal carrier antigen systems to modulate mucosal immune responses in the respiratory tract without causing excessive inflammatory changes. View Publication

Asthma is highly prevalent,but current therapies cannot influence the chronic course of the disease. It is thus important to understand underlying early molecular events. In this study,we aimed to use microRNAs (miRNAs) - which are critical regulators of signaling cascades - to identify so far uncharacterized asthma pathogenesis pathways. Therefore,deregulation of miRNAs was assessed in whole lungs from mice with ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic airway inflammation (AAI). In silico predicted target genes were confirmed in reporter assays and in house-dust-mite (HDM) induced AAI and primary human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) cultured at the air-liquid interface. We identified and validated the transcription factor cAMP-responsive element binding protein (Creb1) and its transcriptional co-activators (Crtc1-3) as targets of miR-17,miR-144,and miR-21. Sec14-like 3 (Sec14l3) - a putative target of Creb1 - was down-regulated in both asthma models and in NHBE cells upon IL13 treatment,while it's expression correlated with ciliated cell development and decreased along with increasing goblet cell metaplasia. Finally,we propose that Creb1/Crtc1-3 and Sec14l3 could be important for early responses of the bronchial epithelium to Th2-stimuli. This study shows that miRNA profiles can be used to identify novel targets that would be overlooked in mRNA based strategies. View Publication

We inhale respiratory pathogens continuously,and the subsequent signaling events between host and microbe are complex,ultimately resulting in clearance of the microbe,stable colonization of the host,or active disease. Traditional in vitro methods are ill-equipped to study these critical events in the context of the lung microenvironment. Here we introduce a microscale organotypic model of the human bronchiole for studying pulmonary infection. By leveraging microscale techniques,the model is designed to approximate the structure of the human bronchiole,containing airway,vascular,and extracellular matrix compartments. To complement direct infection of the organotypic bronchiole,we present a clickable extension that facilitates volatile compound communication between microbial populations and the host model. Using Aspergillus fumigatus,a respiratory pathogen,we characterize the inflammatory response of the organotypic bronchiole to infection. Finally,we demonstrate multikingdom,volatile-mediated communication between the organotypic bronchiole and cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. View Publication

Extracellular matrix (ECM) composition and stiffness are major driving forces for the development and persistence of fibrotic diseases. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) and LOX-like (LOXL) proteins play crucial roles in ECM remodeling due to their collagen crosslinking and intracellular functions. Here,we systematically investigated LOX/L expression in primary fibroblasts and epithelial cells under fibrotic conditions,Bleomycin (BLM) induced lung fibrosis and in human IPF tissue. Basal expression of all LOX/L family members was detected in epithelial cells and at higher levels in fibroblasts. Various pro-fibrotic stimuli broadly induced LOX/L expression in fibroblasts,whereas specific induction of LOXL2 and partially LOX was observed in epithelial cells. Immunohistochemical analysis of lung tissue from 14 IPF patients and healthy donors revealed strong induction of LOX and LOXL2 in bronchial and alveolar epithelium as well as fibroblastic foci. Using siRNA experiments we observed that LOXL2 and LOXL3 were crucial for fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition (FMT). As FMT could only be reconstituted with an enzymatically active LOXL2 variant,we conclude that LOXL2 enzymatic function is crucial for fibroblast transdifferentiation. In summary,our study provides a comprehensive analysis of the LOX/L family in fibrotic lung disease and indicates prominent roles for LOXL2/3 in fibroblast activation and LOX/LOXL2 in IPF. View Publication

3D constructs composed of differentiated immortalized primary normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells (CL-1548) were repeatedly exposed at the air-liquid interface to non-lethal concentrations of mainstream cigarette smoke (4 cigarettes a day,5days/week,8 repetitions in total) and e-cigarette vapor (50 puffs a day,5 days/week,8 repetitions in total) to build up a permanent burden on the cells. Samples were taken after 4,6 and 8 times of repeated smoke exposure and the cultures were investigated using histopathological methods Compared to the clean air-exposed cultures (process control) and incubator control,the aerosol-exposed cultures showed a reduction of ciliated,mucus-producing and club cells. At the end of the exposure phase,we even found metaplastic areas positive for CK13 antibody in the cultures exposed to mainstream cigarette smoke and e-liquid vapor,commonly seen in squamous cells as a marker for non-cornified squamous epithelium. The control cultures (incubator cells) showed no comparable phenotypical changes. In conclusion,our in vitro model presents a valuable tool to study the induction of phenotypical changes after exposure to hazardous airborne material. View Publication

Rotavirus,a leading cause of severe gastroenteritis and diarrhoea in young children,accounts for around 215,000 deaths annually worldwide. Rotavirus specifically infects the intestinal epithelial cells in the host small intestine and has evolved strategies to antagonize interferon and NF-κB signalling,raising the question as to whether other host factors participate in antiviral responses in intestinal mucosa. The mechanism by which enteric viruses are sensed and restricted in vivo,especially by NOD-like receptor (NLR) inflammasomes,is largely unknown. Here we uncover and mechanistically characterize the NLR Nlrp9b that is specifically expressed in intestinal epithelial cells and restricts rotavirus infection. Our data show that,via RNA helicase Dhx9,Nlrp9b recognizes short double-stranded RNA stretches and forms inflammasome complexes with the adaptor proteins Asc and caspase-1 to promote the maturation of interleukin (Il)-18 and gasdermin D (Gsdmd)-induced pyroptosis. Conditional depletion of Nlrp9b or other inflammasome components in the intestine in vivo resulted in enhanced susceptibility of mice to rotavirus replication. Our study highlights an important innate immune signalling pathway that functions in intestinal epithelial cells and may present useful targets in the modulation of host defences against viral pathogens. View Publication

The intestinal epithelium plays an essential role in nutrient absorption,hormone release,and barrier function. Maintenance of the epithelium is driven by continuous cell renewal by stem cells located in the intestinal crypts. The amount and type of diet influence this process and result in changes in the size and cellular make-up of the tissue. The mechanism underlying the nutrient-driven changes in proliferation is not known,but may involve a shift in intracellular metabolism that allows for more nutrients to be used to manufacture new cells. We hypothesized that nutrient availability drives changes in cellular energy metabolism of small intestinal epithelial crypts that could contribute to increases in crypt proliferation. We utilized primary small intestinal epithelial crypts from C57BL/6J mice to study (1) the effect of glucose on crypt proliferation and (2) the effect of glucose on crypt metabolism using an extracellular flux analyzer for real-time metabolic measurements. We found that glucose increased both crypt proliferation and glycolysis,and the glycolytic pathway inhibitor 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) attenuated glucose-induced crypt proliferation. Glucose did not enhance glucose oxidation,but did increase the maximum mitochondrial respiratory capacity,which may contribute to glucose-induced increases in proliferation. Glucose activated Akt/HIF-1alpha signaling pathway,which might be at least in part responsible for glucose-induced glycolysis and cell proliferation. These results suggest that high glucose availability induces an increase in crypt proliferation by inducing an increase in glycolysis with no change in glucose oxidation. View Publication

To better characterize biological responses to atmospheric organic aerosols,the efficient delivery of aerosol to in vitro lung cells is necessary. In this study,chamber generated secondary organic aerosol (SOA) entered the commercialized exposure chamber (CULTEX® Radial Flow System Compact) where it interfaced with an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) (CULTEX® Electrical Deposition Device) and then deposited on a particle collection plate. This plate contained human lung cells (BEAS-2B) that were cultured on a membrane insert to produce an air-liquid interface (ALI). To augment in vitro assessment using the ESP exposure device,the particle dose was predicted for various sampling parameters such as particle size,ESP deposition voltage,and sampling flowrate. The dose model was evaluated against the experimental measured mass of collected airborne particles. The high flowrate used in this study increased aerosol dose but failed to achieve cell stability. For example,RNA in the ALI BEAS-2B cells in vitro was stable at 0.15 L/minute but decayed at high flowrates. The ESP device and the resulting model were applied to in vitro studies (i.e.,viability and IL-8 expression) of toluene SOA using ALI BEAS-2B cells with a flowrate of 0.15 L/minute,and no cellular RNA decay occurred. View Publication