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BACKGROUND Neuroblastoma (NB),a tumor of the primitive neural crest,despite aggressive treatment portends a poor long-term survival for patients with advanced high stage NB. New treatment strategies are required. METHODS We investigated coordinated targeting of essential homeostatic regulatory factors involved in cancer progression,histone deacetylases (HDACs) and carbonic anhydrases (CAs). RESULTS We evaluated the antitumor potential of the HDAC inhibitor (HDACi),pyridylmethyl-N-4-[(2-aminophenyl)-carbamoyl]-benzyl-carbamate (MS-275) in combination with a pan CA inhibitor,acetazolamide (AZ) on NB SH-SY5Y,SK-N-SH and SK-N-BE(2) cells. The key observation was that the combination AZ + MS-275 significantly inhibited growth,induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis,and reduced migration capacity of NB cell line SH-SY5Y. In addition,this combination significantly inhibited tumor growth in vivo,in a pre-clinical xenograft model. Evidence was obtained for a marked reduction in tumorigenicity and in the expression of mitotic,proliferative,HIF-1α and CAIX. NB xenografts of SH-SY5Y showed a significant increase in apoptosis. CONCLUSION MS-275 alone at nanomolar concentrations significantly reduced the putative cancer stem cell (CSC) fraction of NB cell lines,SH-SY5Y and SK-N-BE(2),in reference to NT2/D1,a teratocarcinoma cell line,exhibiting a strong stem cell like phenotype in vitro. Whereas stemness genes (OCT4,SOX2 and Nanog) were found to be significantly downregulated after MS-275 treatment,this was further enhanced by AZ co-treatment. The significant reduction in initial tumorigenicity and subsequent abrogation upon serial xenografting suggests potential elimination of the NB CSC fraction. The significant potentiation of MS-275 by AZ is a promising therapeutic approach and one amenable for administration to patients given their current clinical utility. View Publication

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) is involved in regulating many processes during neural development,and IGF binding protein-4 (IGFBP4) functions as a modulator of IGF actions or in an IGF-independent manner (e.g.,via inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin signaling). In the present study,neural progenitor cells (NPCs) were isolated from the forebrain of newborn mice to investigate effects of IGFBP4 on the proliferation and differentiation of NPCs. The proliferation of NPCs was evaluated using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) after treatment with or without IGFBP4 as well as blockers of IGF-IR and β-catenin. Phosphorylation levels of Akt,Erk1,2 and p38 were analyzed by Western blotting. The differentiation of NPCs was evaluated using immunofluorescence and Western blotting. It was shown that exogenous IGFBP4 significantly inhibited the proliferation of NPCs and it did not induce a more pronounced inhibition of cell proliferation after blockade of IGF-IR but it did after antagonism of β-catenin. Akt phosphorylation was significantly decreased and phosphorylation levels of Erk1,2 and p38 were not significantly changed in IGFBP4-treated NPCs. Excessive IGFBP4 significantly promoted NPCs to differentiate into astrocytes and neurons. These data suggested that exogenous IGFBP4 inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation of neural progenitor cells mainly through IGF-IR signaling pathway. View Publication

BACKGROUND Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia induces massive brain damage during the perinatal period,resulting in long-term consequences to central nervous system structural and functional maturation. Although neural progenitor cells (NPCs) migrate through the parenchyma and home in to injury sites in the rodent brain,the molecular mechanisms are unknown. We examined the role of chemokines in mediating NPC migration after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. METHODS Nine-day-old mice were exposed to a 120-minute hypoxia following unilateral carotid occlusion. Chemokine levels were quantified in mouse brain extract. Migration and proliferation assays were performed using embryonic and infant mouse NPCs. RESULTS The neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury resulted in an ipsilateral lesion,which was extended to the cortical and striatal areas. NPCs migrated toward an injured area,where a marked increase of CC chemokines was detected. In vitro studies showed that incubation of NPCs with recombinant mouse CCL11 promoted migration and proliferation. These effects were partly inhibited by a CCR3 antagonist,SB297006. CONCLUSIONS Our data implicate an important effect of CCL11 for mouse NPCs. The effective activation of NPCs may offer a promising strategy for neuroregeneration in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. View Publication

L-2-hydroxyglutarate aciduria (L-2-HGA) is an autosomal recessive neurometabolic disorder caused by a mutation in the L-2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase ( L2HGDH ) gene. In this study,we generated L2hgdh knockout (KO) mice and observed a robust increase of 2-hydroxyglutarate (L-2-HG) levels in multiple tissues. The highest levels of L-2-HG were observed in the brain and testis with a corresponding increase in histone methylation in these tissues. L2hgdh KO mice exhibit white matter abnormalities,extensive gliosis,microglia-mediated neuroinflammation,and an expansion of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Moreover,L2hgdh deficiency leads to impaired adult hippocampal neurogenesis and late-onset neurodegeneration in mouse brains. Our data provide in vivo evidence that L2hgdh mutation leads to L-2-HG accumulation,leukoencephalopathy,and neurodegeneration in mice,thus offering new insights into the pathophysiology of L-2-HGA in humans. View Publication

OBJECTIVE In this work we set to develop and to validate a new in vivo frameless orthotopic Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma (DIPG) model based in the implantation of a guide-screw system. METHODS It consisted of a guide-screw also called bolt,a Hamilton syringe with a 26-gauge needle and an insulin-like 15-gauge needle. The guide screw is 2.6 mm in length and harbors a 0.5 mm central hole which accepts the needle of the Hamilton syringe avoiding a theoretical displacement during insertion. The guide-screw is fixed on the mouse skull according to the coordinates: 1mm right to and 0.8 mm posterior to lambda. To reach the pons the Hamilton syringe is adjusted to a 6.5 mm depth using a cuff that serves as a stopper. This system allows delivering not only cells but also any kind of intratumoral chemotherapy,antibodies or gene/viral therapies. RESULTS The guide-screw was successfully implanted in 10 immunodeficient mice and the animals were inoculated with DIPG human cell lines during the same anesthetic period. All the mice developed severe neurologic symptoms and had a median overall survival of 95 days ranging the time of death from 81 to 116 days. Histopathological analysis confirmed tumor into the pons in all animals confirming the validity of this model. CONCLUSION Here we presented a reproducible and frameless DIPG model that allows for rapid evaluation of tumorigenicity and efficacy of chemotherapeutic or gene therapy products delivered intratumorally to the pons. View Publication

The realization of personalized medicine through human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology can be advanced by transcriptomics,epigenomics,and bioinformatics that inform on genetic pathways directing tissue development and function. When possible,population diversity should be included in new studies as resources become available. Previously we derived replicate iPSC lines of African American,Hispanic-Latino and Asian self-designated ethnically diverse (ED) origins with normal karyotype,verified teratoma formation,pluripotency biomarkers,and tri-lineage in vitro commitment. Here we perform bioinformatics of RNA-Seq and ChIP-seq pluripotency data sets for two replicate Asian and Hispanic-Latino ED-iPSC lines that reveal differences in generation of contractile cardiomyocytes but similar and robust differentiation to multiple neural,pancreatic,and smooth muscle cell types. We identify shared and distinct genes and contributing pathways in the replicate ED-iPSC lines to enhance our ability to understand how reprogramming to iPSC impacts genes and pathways contributing to cardiomyocyte contractility potential. View Publication

Human embryonic stem cells can replicate indefinitely while maintaining their undifferentiated state and,therefore,are immortal in culture. This capacity may demand avoidance of any imbalance in protein homeostasis (proteostasis) that would otherwise compromise stem cell identity. Here we show that human pluripotent stem cells exhibit enhanced assembly of the TRiC/CCT complex,a chaperonin that facilitates the folding of 10% of the proteome. We find that ectopic expression of a single subunit (CCT8) is sufficient to increase TRiC/CCT assembly. Moreover,increased TRiC/CCT complex is required to avoid aggregation of mutant Huntingtin protein. We further show that increased expression of CCT8 in somatic tissues extends Caenorhabditis elegans lifespan in a TRiC/CCT-dependent manner. Ectopic expression of CCT8 also ameliorates the age-associated demise of proteostasis and corrects proteostatic deficiencies in worm models of Huntington's disease. Our results suggest proteostasis is a common principle that links organismal longevity with hESC immortality. View Publication

Understanding the molecular mechanisms that underlie neurodegenerative disorders has been hampered by a lack of readily available model systems that replicate the complexity of the human disease. Recent advances in stem cell technology have facilitated the derivation of patient-specific stem cells from a variety of differentiated cell types. These induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are attractive disease models since they can be grown and differentiated to produce large numbers of disease-relevant cell types. However,most iPSC lines are derived in advance of,and without the benefit of,neuropathological confirmation of the donor - the gold standard for many disease classifications and measurement of disease severity. While others have reported the generation of autopsy-confirmed iPSC lines from patient explants,these methods require outgrowth of cadaver tissue,which require additional time and is often only successul 50% of the time. Here we report the rapid generation of autopsy-confirmed iPSC lines from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) drawn postmortem. Since this approach doesn't require the propagation of previously frozen cadaver tissue,iPSC can be rapidly and efficiently produced from patients with autopsy-confirmed pathology. These matched iPSC-derived patient-specific neurons and postmortem brain tissue will support studies of specific mechanisms that drive the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. View Publication

BACKGROUND Fragile X syndrome (FXS),a common cause of intellectual disability and autism,results from the expansion of a CGG-repeat tract in the 5' untranslated region of the FMR1 gene to<200 repeats. Such expanded alleles,known as full mutation (FM) alleles,are epigenetically silenced in differentiated cells thus resulting in the loss of FMRP,a protein important for learning and memory. The timing of repeat expansion and FMR1 gene silencing is controversial. METHODS We monitored the repeat size and methylation status of FMR1 alleles with expanded CGG repeats in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and embryonic stem cells (ESCs) that were grown for extended period of time either as stem cells or differentiated into neurons. We used a PCR assay optimized for the amplification of large CGG repeats for sizing,and a quantitative methylation-specific PCR for the analysis of FMR1 promoter methylation. The FMR1 mRNA levels were analyzed by qRT-PCR. FMRP levels were determined by western blotting and immunofluorescence. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was used to study the association of repressive histone marks with the FMR1 gene in FXS ESCs. RESULTS We show here that while FMR1 gene silencing can be seen in FXS embryonic stem cells (ESCs),some silenced alleles contract and when the repeat number drops below ˜400,DNA methylation erodes,even when the repeat number remains<200. The resultant active alleles do not show the large step-wise expansions seen in stem cells from other repeat expansion diseases. Furthermore,there may be selection against large active alleles and these alleles do not expand further or become silenced on neuronal differentiation. CONCLUSIONS Our data support the hypotheses that (i) large expansions occur prezygotically or in the very early embryo,(ii) large unmethylated alleles may be deleterious in stem cells,(iii) methylation can occur on alleles with<400 repeats very early in embryogenesis,and (iv) expansion and contraction may occur by different mechanisms. Our data also suggest that the threshold for stable methylation of FM alleles may be higher than previously thought. A higher threshold might explain why some carriers of FM alleles escape methylation. It may also provide a simple explanation for why silencing has not been observed in mouse models with<200 repeats. View Publication

Adverse effect of alcohol on neural function has been well documented. Especially,the teratogenic effect of alcohol on neurodevelopment during embryogenesis has been demonstrated in various models,which could be a pathologic basis for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). While the developmental defects from alcohol abuse during gestation have been described,the specific mechanisms by which alcohol mediates these injuries have yet to be determined. Recent studies have shown that alcohol has significant effect on molecular and cellular regulatory mechanisms in embryonic stem cell (ESC) differentiation including genes involved in neural development. To test our hypothesis that alcohol induces molecular alterations during neural differentiation we have derived neural precursor cells from pluripotent human ESCs in the presence or absence of ethanol treatment. Genome-wide transcriptomic profiling identified molecular alterations induced by ethanol exposure during neural differentiation of hESCs into neural rosettes and neural precursor cell populations. The Database for Annotation,Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) functional analysis on significantly altered genes showed potential ethanol's effect on JAK-STAT signaling pathway,neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction,Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway,cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and regulation of autophagy. We have further quantitatively verified ethanol-induced alterations of selected candidate genes. Among verified genes we further examined the expression of P2RX3,which is associated with nociception,a peripheral pain response. We found ethanol significantly reduced the level of P2RX3 in undifferentiated hESCs,but induced the level of P2RX3 mRNA and protein in hESC-derived NPCs. Our result suggests ethanol-induced dysregulation of P2RX3 along with alterations in molecules involved in neural activity such as neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction may be a molecular event associated with alcohol-related peripheral neuropathy of an enhanced nociceptive response. View Publication

Mitochondria are critical to neurogenesis,but the mechanisms of mitochondria in neurogenesis have not been well explored. We fully characterized mitochondrial alterations and function in relation to the development of human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Following directed differentiation of hiPSCs to DA neurons,mitochondria in these neurons exhibit pronounced changes during differentiation,including mature neurophysiology characterization and functional synaptic network formation. Inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory chains via application of complex IV inhibitor KCN (potassium cyanide) or complex I inhibitor rotenone restricted neurogenesis of DA neurons. These results demonstrated the direct importance of mitochondrial development and bioenergetics in DA neuronal differentiation. Our study also provides a neurophysiologic model of mitochondrial involvement in neurogenesis,which will enhance our understanding of the role of mitochondrial dysfunctions in neurodegenerative diseases. View Publication

BACKGROUND Glioblastomas (GBMs) are a heterogeneous group of primary brain tumors. These tumors are resistant to therapeutic interventions and invariably recur after surgical resection. The multifunctional protein transglutaminase 2 (TG2) has been shown to promote cell survival in a number of different tumors. There is also evidence that TG2 may be a pro-survival factor in GBMs. However,the roles that TG2 plays in facilitating GBM survival and proliferation have not yet been clearly delineated . METHODS The functions of TG2 are often cell- and context-specific. Therefore,in this study we examined the ability of TG2 to facilitate GBM proliferation using colony formation assays and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation in several different GBM cell lines as well as neurospheres derived from patient tumors representing the 3 major subtypes of GBM tumors (mesenchymal,proneural,and classical) and maintained in the absence of serum. TG2 knockdown or selective TG2 inhibitors were used to modulate TG2 expression and activity. RESULTS We show that TG2 plays differential roles in the proliferative process depending on the cell type. In most,but not all,GBM models TG2 plays a crucial role in the proliferative process,and some but not all TG2 inhibitors were highly effective at reducing proliferation in a large subset of the GBM models. CONCLUSION Our results show that TG2 plays an important-but notoriously context-specific-role in GBM cell biology. Nonetheless,as future studies unravel the genetic fingerprints" that make TG2 inhibitors effective this information could be exploited to develop TG2 inhibitors into personalized GBM therapies. View Publication